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Weber, Wilhelm K.
Training Translators and Conference Interpreters .
Language in Education: Theory and Practice, No.
58.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics,
Washington , D.C.
National Inst, of Education (ED) , Washington, DC.
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ABSTRACT
An examination of translation and conference
interpretation as well-established academic professions focuses on
how they should be taught in order to maintain the integrity of the
two professions and the highest standards in their exercise. An
introductory section answers the question, "Can translation and
interpretation be taught?," noting that these professionals must
possess an extraordinary array of qualifications, including flawless
mastery of their working languages, including their native one. A
second chapter outlines the basic qualifications and aptitudes for
succeeding in the profession as wel^as the characteristics of those
who should not try to enter it. A chapter on learning and teaching
resources discusses textbooks, dictionaries, periodicals, text
materials, and needed equipment (booths and consoles). The structure,
duration, and sequence of translation and interpretation curricula,
specific instructional methods for the different kinds of work, and
testing issues are discussed in separate chapters, and two concluding
sections look at career options and job opportunities and issues in
professional ethics. In the latter sect ion , the translators and
interpreters responsibilities are detailed. A concluding chapter
contains some advice to prospect ive students in the field, and a
bibliography is appended. (MSE)
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* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
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ERLC
O TRAINING TRANSLATORS AND CONFERENCE INTERPRETERS
^ Wilhelm K. Weber
rvj
UJ
A publication of Center for Applied Linguistics
Prepared by
'ERIC
Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics
LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: Theory and Practice
No. 58
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
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EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION"
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positions or policies of NIE or ED.
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Copyright 1984 by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
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CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD vii
1. CAN TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION BE
TAUGHT? ..... 1
2. BASIC APTITUDES AND QUALIFICATIONS ... 3
3. LEARNING AND TEACHING RESOURCES .... 11
4. CURRICULUM 21
5. INSTRUCTION 29
6. TESTING 45
7. CAREER OPTIONS AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES . - 53
8. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODE OF CONDUQT . 59
9. CONCLUSION 65
BIBLIOGRAPHY 67
v
4
FOREWORD
Many learned books have been published about
the "sciences" of translation and interpretation.
Tlrs book is somewhat less pretentious. It deals
neither with linguistics, nor with psycholinguis-
tics, nor with the importance of translation and
interpretation in the communicative process'.
It deals rather with the importance of trans-
lation and conference interpretation as well-
established academic professions and how they
should be taught in order to maintain the integrity
of the two professions and the highest standards in
their exe.rcise.
It is an attempt to show, on the basis of my
twenty years of experience in the practice and
teaching of both fields, what the professional
translator and interpreter must know, and what can
be done- -and cannot be done — to help many young
people interested in these careers achieve this
goal.
It is an attempt, however modest, to inspire
respect for these very difficult and exacting, yet
highly satisfying, professions, without which to-
day's world of international interdependence could
not. function.
Those who prepare students for careers in
translation and interpretation must have the high-
est regard for the skills that they are trying to
impart to future members of the profession. In-
deed, it would be inconceivable for anyone to try
and teach these skills as merely ancillary to
learning foreign languages.
These skills --or arts, if you will— have be-
come part of two distinct, although related,
professions that provide thousands of practitioners
around the world with their livelihood and endless
personal satisfaction.
Both professions must be taught only by the
best-qualified instructors to those students who
demonstrate clearly that they, too, possess the
necessary aptitudes and maturity to enable them to
become outstanding professionals.
I encourage all the many dedicated teachers of
translation and interpretation around the world to
pursue their efforts toward shaping this excellent
talent and bringing it to its full fruition in the
exercise of these two prof essions that help people
to understand one another across many barriers.
Carmel , Spring 1984
viii
CIIAPTKK .1: OAK TKANSLAT I ON AND 1 ".NTKKPRKTAT I ON UK TAUOIIT
Although the profession of interpreting is as
old as man's ability to speak, and although the
Jirst translators performed their art when the first
diplomatic notes and trade papers were exchanged, it
is only since the end of World War I and the inter-
national crises that followed that these two pro-
fusions have developed in their present form.
Consecutive inters -etation 1 was used exclusively
until about 1945, when simultaneous interpretation
was used for the first time at the war criminal
trials at Nuremberg,
Good translators and good interpreters must
possess an extraordinary array of qualifications.
Just as an outstanding instrumental soloist or a
perfect figure skater must have a flawless tech-
nique, translators and interpreters must have a
complete mastery of their working languages, includ-
ing their native language.
In order to answer the question asked in the
chapter heading, I must first say something about
the way in which people currently become trans-
lators and interpreters.
Whereas one can still enter the field of
translation with every imaginable background (and,
in fact, all too often without the proper
^'Although I address myself only to the profession
of conference interpreters, I feel that all other
interpreters — and in particular, court interpreters
— should benefit from the sam~ training.
S
1
7
background at all), the access to the profession of
conference interpretation is much more structured.
The mo3t recent statistical survey of the
International Association of Conference Interpreters
shows that 95 percent of the respondents between the
ages of 30 and 45 were trained in a univt ^ity pro-
gram. There is a good reason for these statistics:
one can be a poor translator for a long time before
complaints arise, whereas a faulty interpretation is
caught immediately, most of the time to the utmost
embarrassment of all concerned. Moreover, the fact
that interpreters work in teams assures a certain
quality control, for nothing is more painful for a
conference interpreter than to work with a colleague
who is doing a poor job.
There are two important points to consider when
attempting to answer the question whether transla-
tion and interpretation can be taught:
(1) The first interpreters in our century were
all self-taught. They were full-fledged diplomats,
whose training and whose professional experience
endowed them with extraordinary linguistic and com-
municative skills. They developed their skills on
the basis of an unusually broad general knowledge,
education, and perfect fluency in several languages.
(2) It is sometimes said by members of our
profession that "so-and-so would have made it even
without a school 11 or that she or he "became a good
transle: tor /interpreter in spite of the school she
or he attended." Although remarks of this nature
are heard less often nowadays and are based on a
time when students were taught by the "sink-or-
swim" method, the implication remains that teaching
is not everything and — more important — not all the
skills can be taught to everyone.
It will come as no surprise to the reader that
I am of the opinion that translation and interpre-
tation must be taught, and taught properly.
Only exceptionally gifted people (of whom I
have only met one or two during my professional
career) cam hope to accede to these professions on
their own without developing serious bad habits and
making mistakes that will tarnish their profes-
sional performance for the rest of their careers.
2
8
CUAPTKK 2: BASIC A! , T I TUDKS AND QUAU i< I CAT 1 ONS
t
Before I attempt to describe 'the "magic"
aptitudes that a successful translator or inter-
preter must possess, a definition of both fields
seems in order. This should also automatically
clarify who should NOT try to enter these pro-
fessions.
Translation is the transposition of a text
written in a source language into a target lan-
guage. The translated version must be absolutely
accurate in meaning, contain all nuances of the
original, and must be written in clear, elegant
language that can be easily understood by the- x
reader.' Needless to say, punctuation, spelling, -
and grammar must be flawless. In addition, trans-
lators have at their disposal dictionaries and
reference material in both languages.
Interpretation is the oral transposition of an
orally delivered message at a conference or a meet-
ing from a source language into a target language ,
performed in the presence of the participants.
This function can be performed simultaneously (at
the same time as the . speech is given) pr consecu-
tively (after the speaker has finished a part or
the totality of the speech). At times, the inter-
preter has, to .go from the written medium (text) to
the oral medium (interpretation). This is called
sight translation.
The important distinction is that the product
of the translator is meant to be read, whereas that-
of the interpreter is meant to be listened to.
It immediately becomes apparent from these
definitions that translators have to be able to
hold their own with the authors of the texts that
3
9
Uu;y ar<; asked to translate, and that inter-
preters need to be intellectually equal to the
speakers whom they have to interpret.
This absolutely rules out any attempt, to train
these professionals at any level but the graduate
level. Thi3 is particularly true for interpreters.
No participant in any important meeting would trust
a twenty-year-old to catch all the important details
in a speech.
TRANSITION
Aptitudes for Students
Scholastic transcripts can be very helpful in
determining a student's aptitude for translation.
Good grades in advanced composition, anc} essay writ-
ing are a particularly good indication of altitude.
One might justifiably ask why a translator needs
all these exceptional qualities to produce a trans-
lation of a highly technical nature. My answer to
this question is that writing and stylistic exer-
cises are exercises in intellectual self-discipline
and flexibility — two extremely important aptitudes
in a translator.
Although they never express ytherir own ideas in
their work/ future translators must be exceptionally
creative in their native language in order to be
able to convey the message contained in the original
text in the irost accurate and understandable, yet
elegant, way possible.
It would be fair to say that only students who
receive straight A's in their native language
courses can aspire to the degree of perfection
needed by a translator.
As professional translators are very rarely
experts in the subject matter of the text they are
asked to translate, the ability to absorb new
ideas and processes and then explain them in the
target language is of the utmost importance.
Translators must also be able to convey com-
plicated ideas accurately. Good training in their
own language, which should always be the language
4
10
V
into winch thry t ran:i lat .e , in an absolute prrmjui -
liite. Technical writing couroe:; as well i\u clashes
in editing and proofreading will be of great help
to the future translator.
Although technical experts Vho also translate
will initially have a distinct advantage over
general translators, who need training to become
technical translator a f the former will remain
translators in their own field of expertise only,
whereas the latter will be able to deal with' any
material that ends up on their desk. Moreover,
most technical experts rarely possess outstanding
writing .skills.
Experience hay shown that graduates in trans-
lation can easily be trained to become technical
translators. Many of them finish their careers in
corporate managerial positions, which underscores
their extraordinary flexibility.
Finally, it is often argued that it is better
to have a technical background for technical trans-
lation; however, there are not many engineers or
technicians who would be interested in doing full-
time translations as long as language personnel in
the corporate world continue to receive 'the low
salaries that they arc paid today.
Aptitudes for Instructors
Teachers of translation must possess the same
basic aptitudes as the students^ This statement
might seem like a truism, but it must be made none-
theless, as there are far too many instructors, of
translation who (1) have never had one of their own
translations evaluated by a professional or (2)
have never even produced a translation of any sig-
nificance.
Translation is no accurate science that can be
acquired in one .step. It has to be practiced daily
in order to improve one's skills and to build up
the kind of experience that is needed to teach the
field. Each translation adds to one's preparedness
to deal with the next one.
5
It i n.t i v<» to lx» 1 Irvr that a know 1 <m!<ji« t >t a
1 dtufUiKje i ui< J 1 itorntun* , not to mrnt ion a I am i liar-
Lty with linguistics , qualifies oru» to teach trans-
lation. Only the very experienced translator can
instruct students how to avoid pitfall^ and how to
transpose a message written in one language to the
genius of another language in such a way that read-
on; of the translation are led to believe that they
i\vv actually reading a text dratted in their own
language.
T NT E RP T . ST AT T ON
Ap t i t ud c i'o r S t ude n t s
As mentioned earlier, conference interpreters
have to have the same level of intelligence as the
person they are called upon to interpret. This
does not imply, however, that all people possessing
a high degree of intelligence and language fluency
can become conference interpreters. What, then,
are the aptitudes that distinguish the student with
good potential from all others?
Perhaps this is the appropriate time to con-
sider aptitude tests for future conference inter-
preters. I have administer** iptitude tests at the
University of Geneva, Switzerland; the United
Nations European Office; NATO; the European Com-
munities; and Georgetown University. Although the
tests used by these different institutions vary in
their modalities of application and specific con-
tent, all attempt to test the following:
• Intelligence
• Ability to abstract and paraphrase
• Reaction time
• Memory
• Poise and presentation
• Voice
• Understanding of and fluency in the
foreign languages
6
v
12
o Quality of the native language
These aptitudes are normally tested in the
following manner:
(1) ' Candidates are asked to talk in their
foreign languages about their studies, living
experiences abroad, and general intellectual inter-
ests • This test gives a fairly good picture of the
candidates' way of thinking and of presenting their
own ideas. The evaluation criteria are voice, pre-
sentation, accent, logical sequence of ideas,
general attitude, and general knowledge,
(2) The second part often consists of an exer-
^^cise in abstracting and paraphrasing. A short ex-
^|§bse, comprisiiig-a section with dense information
and one tha^/israther wordy but does not contain
many concfete ideas, is either read or improvised
in one of the students 1 foreign languages by one of
the "examiners (there are usually two).
The candidates are then asked to repeat orally
in their native language as much information as they
have been able to retain. The expose is usually no
longer than three or four minutes. Candidates are
discouraged from taking any notes (with the excep-
tion of numbers and proper names) , as this is also
a memory test.
The evaluation criteria are completeness and
accuracy (retention) , understanding of the foreign
language, logic of presentation, ability to abstract
and retain key ideas, concentration, and ability to
deal with such translation difficulties as humor,
idiomatic expressions, or proverbs.
(3) The third and last part usually consists
, v of a sight translation from both foreign languages
into the native language. The emphasis here is on
the understanding and rendering of a somewhat
higher language level. Evaluated are speed, accu-
racy, and technique of dealing with unexpected
difficulties (it is important that candidates, be
given absolutely no time to look at the text before-
hand) .
Most tests in consecutive interpretation are.
conducted with improvised exposes, including witty
and humorous ones, which are particularly suited
7
13
for testing the general interpreting skills of
candidates. Incidentally, these tests are never
terminology tests, but general skills tests.
This kind of aptitude test has cut down the
failure rate at final exams or successive tests
during the training period to quite acceptable pro-
portions. Students who do not exhibit the requisite
aptitudes are either not allowed to enter the pro-
gram or are encouraged to improve their language
skills before taking the test a second time.
Usually, they can take these tests only twice.
Aptitudes for Instructors
The qualities of good instructors of interpre-
tation will be discussed in greater detail in the
chapter on teaching methods. However, it can be
said at this point quite emphatically that interpre-
tation should be taught only by professional inter-
preters. As in the case of translators, someone
who does not have the skills and aptitudes to inter-
pret cannot teach interpretation effectively. More-
over, instructors have to keep up these skills
through constant practice and must keep abreast of
professional developments and innovations or
changes.
It is quite inconceivable for anyone to teach
interpretation without being able to demonstrate
the skills, just as it would be unimaginable for a
choreographer to teach dance without having experi-
enced all the movements. It would be professionally
and morally dishonest to students to try and com-
municate to them the extremely difficult art of
interpretation without having been extensively ex-
posed tc the practice.
While translation can sometimes be integrated
into the mainstream of. programs for language majors
as an additional means for acquiring and ^perfecting
language skills—Jbut not to : prepare professional
translators, except in the literary field — inter-
pretation needs its own well structured curriculum
composed of many complex 1 elements.
8
14
The occasional "exercises in consecutive or
simultaneous interpretation" for language majors f
of which we see too many at present, are, in my
opinion, complete nonsense. They are useless at
best, and counterproductive and unethical at worst.
The attempt to increase the enrollment in foreign
language classes by offering courses in pseudo-
interpretation is a sin against the whole pro-
fession!
9
CHAPTEP 3: LEARNING AND TEACHING RESOURCES
In this chapter, I am assuming that the trans-
lation and interpretation program is offered ar a
university and that students have access to a well-
endowed reference library in all fields that they
need to investigate within the framework of their
studies. I shall therefore concentrate on only
those resources that are needed specifically to
teach and study translation and interpretation.
TEXTBOOKS
It is always surprising to people wanting to
add a translation and interpretation component to
their language instruction that there are very few
— if any — textbooks in these fields. The reason
for this state of affairs is that instruction is /<
based primarily on personal professional experience \
and that teaching methods are constantly being im-
proved and adjusted on the basis of this ongoing
experience. Moreover, conference interpreters who
also teach are normally too busy to write about
their experiences. (For some general introductory
books on the two professions, please refer to the
bibliography at the end of this publication. )
11
16
DICTIONARIES
It is always a good idea to encourage students
to work with monolingual reference dictionaries
rather than to adopt the easy solution of looking
up words directly in bilingual or multilingual
dictionaries. The process of looking for synonyms
of the unknown word in the source language first
and then trying to find the equivalent in the target
language develops a great deal of sensitivity and _
accuracy in both languages • Even for technical
terminology, students should be discouraged from
taking the easy shortcut of referring directly to
the bilingual or multilingual technical dictionary.
This procedure only encourages students to compare
word pairs before even understanding the exact
meaning of the source word.
This is not to say, of course, that one can do
without bilingual dictionaries, which are often
more carefully prepared than multilingual diction-
aries.
The best dictionaries in any technical field,
in my opinion, are tho^a that are compiled by pro-
fessional organizations. These are at times diffi-
cult to come by, but.it certainly pays to try and
find them.
The choice of technical fields and specialties
to be covered by a program's library largely de-
oends on the topics covered in the classes. In this
day and age, however, they should include at least
all the following:
• Medicine (general)
• Medical specialties, e.g., Neurology
Dermatology
Urology
Gynecology and
obstetrics
Surgery
Ophthalmology
Otolaryngo logy
Dentistry
Orthopedics
12
17
© Biology
© Chemistry
© Petrochemistry
o Pharmacology and pharmaceutics
o Computer science
© Pollution control
© Iron and steel industry
© Armaments
• Nuclear energy
In the more general fields, the following
should be accessible to students:
• International organizations
• Politics and wrrld affairs
• Economics *
• Currencies
• Finance and banking
• Statistics
• Budgeting and accounting
• International and trade negotiations
• Development and technical assistance
• International law and comparative law ^
All thevse topics should be dealt with at least
once during the students' training period. j.n addi-
tion to translation and interpretation exercises,
courses should include a general introduction to
these fields. Therefore, general reference material
in these areas must be available in all languages
that are offered in the program. A good translation
and interpretation library should not only help stu-
dents during their studies but 'should also provide
assistance to them for their work after graduation.
PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS
The program must subscribe to at least one
daily newspaper in each language offered as well as
the most important and most widely read weekly pub-
lications. For languages that are spoken in several
13
18
countries, subscriptions should cover several — if
not all — of these countries in order to allow stu-
dents to compare styles, points of viev/, and
regional idiosyncracies.
Moreover, at least one scientific and technical
magazine in each language must be available.
For Translation
The best text materials are those that have
been translated by instructors themselves. How-
ever, very few prof essicnal translators are familiar
with all the fields that must be included in trans-
lation courses, unless they have retired from a long
professional career (in which case some of the
materials wlghz be outdated).
Several sources can be tapped for translation
of these, such as the International
Atomic Energy Agency, *:he World Health
Organization, the International Telecom-
munications,. Union, the Universal Postal , .
Union, etc., deal with highly technical
fields. Many of them distribute publi-
cations at little or no cost. The public
information offices of these organizations
are normally helpful in locating such
materials •
• Tests used for testing new translators by
international organizations , translation
agencies, government agencies, and pri-
vate corporations
• Newspapers
TEXT' MATERIALS
texts:
14
19
© Technical publications
o Publications an.-? reports of banks and
f inancial iiistitutions
Some of these are published i i several
languages and provide ideal material.
© Legal publications and documents
• Contract forms
When choosing the text material/ instructors
should take care that students are exposed to the
terminology and the jargon that are commonly used
by experts in the different fields. Using thv cor-
rect "style of the trade" will make the difference
between a translation that reads like a translation
and a rendition that could have been written by an
expert in the target language. Obviously/ all
translation materials must be regularly updated.
It should be stressed that in order to assimi-
late the particular style, students must read in
their own language material on the topic dealt with
in the translation assignment, even before starting
the translation. There is a German expression for
this process, which is "sich einlesen" (literally,
"to read oneself into") .
Although the material described above should
form the core of the courses, there is, of course,
more general material that poses particular prob-
lems of structure and syntax in the source lan-
guage and that remains timeless.
For Interpretation
All course material for interpretation courses
must consist of speeches. Absolutely no articles
should be used, as they are .meant to be read and
not listened to. The information contained therein
is often too dense to be interpreted, even by the
most experienced professionals, and would only dis-
courage students. Ideally, the instructor should
improvise these speeches, both in consecutive and
simultaneous interpretation courses.
However, as most technical papers read in
scientific conferences and conventions are prepared
in writing, an extensive collection of these should
be on hand in a training program for more advanced
students. Such materials coi only be used by par-
ticularly experienced instructors who are able to
rearrange the content of these articles and come up
with what sounds like a spontaneous speech.
The same material can be used for both simul-
taneous and consecutive classes, although the texts
used for consecutive classes are usually more de-
manding, since students have more time to think and
to analyze the original.
Recordings of good as well as unsatisfactory
interpretations serve as excellent tools for demon-
strating to students the quality — and the problems-
of professionals. Practical demonstrations by the
instructor should, of course, be given regularly.
In addition to their pedagogical value, they also
increase the respect and confidence that the stu-
dents feel toward their instructor.
MATERIALS FOR INTERPRETATION
Booths and Consoles
Good simultaneous interpretation equipment is
extremely important if students are to be prepared
for the realities of their profession. I do not
recommend the use of language lab facilities for
the following reasons:
(1) The lack of soundproofing (open booths or
"stations") induces students to whisper, or, at
best, to reduce their voice volume unnaturally.
This leads to additional stress in an already
stressful environment.
(2) As conference interpreters always work in
teams of at least two interpreters per booth, it is
X
important that students learn how to cooperate
efficiently with their colleagues.
(3) Students have to get used to the kind of
equipment that is used in international conferences
in order to develop the correcL reflexes in operat-
ing microphone switches, channel selectors ("In" and
"Out") , volume controls, cough buttons, etc. More-
over, maintaining the correct distance from the
microphone and choosing voice modulation that best
suits the listener, the equipment, and themselves
are of extreme importance.
Ideally, a large classroom or auditorium
should be equipped with eight to ten regular-sized
booths. To allow for the organization of mock con-
ferences, the same room should also contain a con-
ference table large enough to seat a dozen people.
If an auditoriujm is available, it should be
outfitted with booths, so that students can prac-
tice whenever guest speakers are lecturing. In
some cases it might be possible to provide an audio
link between the auditorium and the classroom for
simultaneous interpretation, so that the number of
students who can practice with a "live" lecturer
can be increased.
However, it must be pointed out that interpre-
tation without a direct visual link with the speaker
should be limited to exceptional cases. The visual
link is a basic element of the communicative process
among the speaker, the interpreter, and the listen-
ers and should not be eliminated.
The classroom should have a separate console
for the instructor, allowing ^ >r the following
operations:
• Listening to each booth individually
• Listening simultaneously to the original
speech, on tape or cassette and one stu-
dent (student in one ear, speech in the
other ear)
• Reading a speech in the original language
while at the same time listening to one
bootn
17
22
• Listening simultaneously to a speech
given at the conference table and to
one student
© Playing for all booths a speech
recorded on tape or cassette
o Recording each booth individually and
at the same time, i.e., there must be
as many recorders as there are booths
• Playing back the original speech
• Playing back each student's recorded
interpretation with feedback into room
(loudspeakers) and booths (through
system)
• Operating a call system to all booths
• Operating an individual intercom with
each booth, enabling the instructor to
give corrections during the student's
interpretation
Recordings of Speeches
A comprehensive collection of recordings of
actual speeches of varying^ difficulty and speed is
indispensable. Conditions that correspond to those
actually encountered in multilingual meetings can
be recreated only with difficulty in the classroom,
and even am experienced instructor sometimes finds
it difficult to maintain normal speed while reading
a speech out, loud and listening to the simultaneous
interpretation at the same time.
A number of experiments have been conducted
with the use of videotaped speeches. The prevail-
ing opinion among teachers of interpretation is
that a real situation cannot be recreated with
videotapes and that looking at an image on a screen
does not really replace looking -directly at a
speaker.^ it is therefore not really worthwhile for
18
a school to invest in this type of equipment ,
unless a large screen can be used, allowing a full
view of the speaker or at least his or her entire
face and all gestures.
I ofessional interpreters always demand to see
the speaker directly and refuse to work unless this
condition is met. This excludes the use of tele-
vision monitors, unless these are used as supple-
ments (for instance, in very large meeting halls
where the interpreters 1 booths are far away frou
the speakers 1 podium) .
24
19
CHAPTER 4: CURRICULUM
Only full training programs should be offered
in translation and interpretation. Isolated courses
are only counterproductive , as they lull the stu-
dents into the false impression of having mastered
the profession. At best, the more gifted students
feel frustrated, because they cannot pursue their
studies any further. At worst, students' will try
to advertise their "skills" after only one or two
courses and find out that they are totally unpre-
pared for reality. Ideally, there should be two
completely separate curricula for each field.. This
also depends, however, on the age, intellectual '
maturity, and language background of the students.
Again, a strong warning seems in order at this
point: the training of professional translators
and interpreters is a "package" that needs to be,
carefully balanced. JuSt as no one in his right
mind would think of offering one or two courses in
"The Practice of Medicine," no one should attempt
piecemeal training of translators or interpreters.
In Europe r students usually start their trans-
lation and interpretation studies as soon as they
finish high school; it is at this point that they
enter the university. This implies that the Euro-
pean curricula must include extensive general
studies as well as language studies.
On the basis of my experience with approxi-
mately five hundred graduate students, I feel that,
in the United States the ideal. program would con-
sist of two preparatory years at the upper-division
undergraduate level , : followed by two years of inten-
sive graduate work.
21
25 '
DEGREES
The degree per se is actually less important
than the assurance that the graduate wiil be able
to perform satisfactorily in his or her profession.
However, two factors have to be taken into consider-
ation:
(1) The status of the two professions is
largely dependent upon the university degrees held
by its members. Translating and conference inter-
preting are fully recognized .s academic profes-
sion? , both by the United Nations family of organi-
zations, where they are classified in the profes-
sional category, i.e., requiring a university
degree (usually Professional Category 2 or 3 as
beginners) , as well as by government agencies all
over the world. Anything less than a graduate de-
gree would jeopardize the status of both profes-
sions .
Let me ac^d a remark about so-called "Certifi-
cates" at thi point: certificates create tfce
false impres' that their holders are officially
certified. * makes potential clients believe
that they aie • ling with particularly capable
individuals. \1 xnigh many certificate holders
are, in fact, well qualified, this is not always
the case. In addition, certificate programs are
normally much shorter than full degree programs.
Only court interpreters are certified by
federal or state governments; this certification is
for iftterpireting in the courtroom only, and not for
any other work that might be performed outsid§.
The titles "translator" and "interpreter" have no
legal status—except in Austria and the Federal
Republic of Germany, which are, to my knowledge,
the only countries that offer this protection.
(2) Many graduates in translation or interpre-
tation may want to switch to other activities at a
later time. The experience and knowledge they have
accumulated during their professional activities
enable many of them to take on managerial positions
in private industry, open their own businesses, or
go back into the academic world. This they can do
22
26
far more easily if they hold a full-fledged aca-
demic degree. Teaching positions in accredited
translation and interpretation programs, of course,
also require university degrees.
DURATION
Program duration may vary slightly from one
country to another, but regardless of the degree,
the duration of studies should be at least four
years in addition to the European baccalaureate or
its equivalent, i.e., after completion of the lower
division undergraduate studies in the U~S. In a
normal university setting — excluding intensive
crash courses for exceptionally gifted adults —
this means a minimum of 60 semester (or 90 quarter)
units of credit." The length of studies needed by
any individual student over and abovfc the minimum
requirement will also vary, depending on the stu-
dents general background and language knowledge.
It is highly counterproductive for students and in-
structors alike to attempt to accelerate the train-
ing period, except as noted above.
At the Monterey Institute of International
Studies, where we run a two7year graduate program,
it has been our experience that with the exception
of a few extremely gifted students, the most suc-
cessful are those who can afford to take a full
year off between their first and second year in
residence to live in the countries where their
foreign languages are spoken.
Students in^EKe-U^S. usually know their first
foreign language quite well, but have serious
deficiencies in their second foreign language,
which they cannot correct during their studies.
We usually advise these students either to take
some time off to fill these gaps or to concentrate
on their stronger language, graduate in this lan-
guage, and then add on other foreign languages at
a later time.
23
27
It is, in fact, not uncommon for both trans-
lators and interpreters to add more languages to
their professional repertoire in the course of
their careers. Once the basic skills are acquired,
they are more easily transferrable to new lan-
guages .
On the other hand, gaps in general and lin-
guistic education are bi?:<t filled during the years
of study. Starting out in the profession with too
little preparation not only can result in a bad
reputation (which spreads rapidly in a small pro-
fession) , but also chances are that because of
time constraints, this gap can never be closed.
I do not wish by any means to imply, of
course, that one learns nothing during one's pro-
fessional career. On the contrary, our two pro-
fessions offer unique opportunities for self-
improvement. This is one of the attributes that
makes them so enormously rewarding. However, in
order to be able to benefit to the fullest from
this learning process, students must be fully pre-
pared when they start their professional careers.
SEQUENCE . \
As in all teaching endeavors, it is important
never to make too many demands on the good will,
the patience, and the abilities of the students.
This implies that the curriculum as a whole, and
the course contents in particular, must be care-
fully sequenced. This is all the more important
in translation and interpretation, as we are deal-
ing with skills that have to be developed gradually,
and not with subject matter that can simply be
mastered through diligence or rote learning.
24
28
Translation
It is always a good idea to start translation
with some contrast ive analysis, in order to make
students aware from the outset of the typical pit-
falls of translation. This will teach them to read
the source texts with a professional eye. At the
same time, their faculty for analysis will be
sharpened. They learn how to retain the main ideas
instead of the original words, or — better yet — they
learn how to strip the ideas of all cumbersome lin-
guistic forms before attempting to express these
same ideas as a native of the target language would.
To this end, exercises in paraphra* ; j and substi-
tuting — first in the source language alone and then
in both languages — have proven to be very helpful.
These exercises can be done either in writing or
orally, as, for example, in a public speaking
cg curse .
At this point, I would like to include an aside
on the question of whether training in translation
is a necessary first step for future conference
interpreters.
The answer to this often-debated question very
much depends on the quality of the students.
Immediately exposing to interpretation students
who still need much work in their languages, in-
cluding- their native language, would be somewhat
like asking a rider to jump over high fences be-
fore he or she has acquired a good seat. More-
over, there is a danger in interpretation that stu-
dents may become careless in style and syntax, if
not in grammar. Therefore, interpretation should
not even be attempted before the students have ac-
quired a "safe linguistic seat," especially in
their native language.
But let us come back now to the future trans-
lator.
Exercises in avoiding translations that read
like translations will normally take up most of the
first year of training. It is always a good idea
during this initial period to expose the students
to many different possible translations and to show
25
them the work of professional translators — even bad
examples.
During the second year f more complicated
translation problems should be solved , calling for
inventiveness and resourcefulness on the part of the
instructors as well as the students.
Assuming that the purpose of the training is
to produce professional translators who can earn a
living with these skills, my observations on liter-
ary translation can be summed up in a single re-
mark: literary translation is a luxury in a pro-
fessional program. What the professional translator
needs is a profound knowledge of source and target
languages in as many fields as possible, I am not
against literary translation as such; on the con-
trary, literary translation can lead to extra-
ordinary insights into the complex structure and
the beauty of a language as well as into the genius
of the people who speak it. Students should, there-
fore,- always be strongly , encouraged to read good
literature and literary translations in order to
improve their abilities.
The student's masterpiece should be his or her
thesis. The thesis should be done by the student
alone , but should be closely supervised by the ad-
visor. It* should be read by two readers, one of
whom does not know the source language at all.. The
other reader, when applicable, should be a techni-
cal expert. The thesis project should be at least
100 pages long (about 30,000 words).
The thesis also offers a marvelous opportunity
to introduce the student to the professional world:
the preparation of a printable translation, typing
and typesetting, corrections and proof reading , foot-
notes, translator 1 s notes, research, quotes, corre-
spondence with authors and publishers, translation
rights , copyright , contracts , et c . Many o f these
aspects of the profession should also be covered
in a special course on the profession, which should
include professional ethics, professional- associ-
ations , responsibilities , fees, and negotiations
with clients.
Three courses should be mandatory for both
translators and interpreters:
26
30
• Sight Translation
• Precis Writing
e Conference Terminology and Parliamentary
Procedure
Sight translation is the process through which
every translator must go before putting anything on
paper. Moreover , it is really what translators do
if they dictate their translations. And, finally,
translators are normally called upon to do sight
translations in meetings and negotiations, because
interpreters are not available to do this job.
Likewise, all precis writing is done by trans-
lators. This fulfills a very important function in
larger international organizations, where minutes
are not published in extenso, but rather in the
form of a "Summary Record." Writing these requires
a special technique that translators must master.
Interpretation
Courses in interpretation should adhere
strictly to the following sequence:
• Sight translation
• Consecutive interpretation
• Simultaneous interpretation
The most difficult aspect of interpreting is
the speed with which it must be accomplished.
Therefore, students have to be led gradually to a
point where they are able to cope with this prob-
lem.
Through sight translation, students learn how
to conduct themselves in front of an audience.
They also acquire the basic reflexes required to
transpose a message into another language (assum-
ing that they have not had any translation courses
beforehand). Moreover, they develop a swift eye-
brain-voice coordination, which becomes vital in
the process of simultaneous interpretation of
speeches that have been prepared beforehand and
are read at top speed by the speaker. Finally, it
27
31
is a little easier to analyze a message that is
presented visually than one that is presented
orally.
During the next phase, consecutive interpre-
tation, students learn how to analyze a message
that is pre s untied to them orally at increasing
speed, to strip this message of all superfluous
linguistic forms, and then to express it in their
target language in the same way as a native speaker
of that language would have presented this message
spontaneously. (At this stage, students control
their own timing, at least during the actual inter-
pretation. )
The simultaneous interpretation course crowns
this whole process. The students have learned
through sight translation and consecutive interpre-
tation how to go about the basic steps of the whole
interpretation process and will now find it easier
to cope with the extraordinary stress of the simul-
taneous process, where they must ^epenu totally on
the speed at which the speech is given.
It can easily be seen why offering simultaneous
interpretation courses in an isolated fashion or at
the beginning of the program simply does not make
sense. The omission of the preparatory work only
produces parrots who repeat words at high speed,
without making any< effort to analyze and transpose
the original message. The result is that the
listeners are buried under an avalanche of words
that they in turn have to analyze in order to under-
stand. Under such circumstances, the| interpreter
is obviously not fulfilling his or her basic
mission, which is to help people communicate. The
message coming out of an interpreter's booth must
be absolutely clear. The listener should not have
to make any special effort in addition to listening.,
which sometimes is enough of an effort to begin
with, as it is unnatural for anyone to wear ear-
phones all day.
28
32
CHAPTER 5: INSTRUCTION
METHODS
Translation
Translation classes must be made interesting.
Although this is, of course, true of all classes in
all subjects, a translation class runs a greater
risk of becoming boring because of its five-
dimensional character. There are not^only the
usual ingredients of the instructor, the students,
and the subject matter at hand, but a source text
and a target text as well.
To keep all these five elements under control
simultaneously requires exceptional pedagogical
aptitudes on the part of the instructor. Therefore,
it is vitally important that there be a sense of
cooperation in the classroom. The ideal situation
would be for the instructor to be familiar with
only the reading and the terminology of the assign-
ment. The instructor's major effort should go into
solving problems along with the students.
It is also a good idea to have students choose
their own material on occasion. This gives them a
feeling of being able to "test the teacher," which
is good for their own confidence^ Needless to say,
instructors must be extremely solid in their knowl-
edge — and possess strong egos — to be able to do
this .
29
33
The following points reem particularly impor-
tant to me:
• A translation course is not a lecture
course, but a common effort involving
students and instructor to iind the
best possible solution to the translation
problems at hand.
• The instructor needs to be well enough
prepared to be able to give immediate
feedback to the students. In cases
where some research is necessary, the
feedback should be given, at the latest,
during the following class session.
o The instructor must be well versed in
the subject matter treated in the text
material and must be able to introduce
the students to the subject before any
attempt at translation is made.
• Homework assignments are just as im-
portant — if not more important — than
work done in class. Each student must
receive a corrected translation back
each week. 'The length of the assign-
ment may vary, but it should be at
least 500 words.
Corrections must be detailed and include expla
nations of the nature of the errors. The weakest
points of the student ! s performance should be sum-
marized, while rat 'the same time the student should
he encouraged to.* wdrJc. hard to correct these areas.
The instructor 'should ;:also indicate how this can
nest be achieved. >:-- ;
Moreover, translation courses should include
an introduction to available resources (diction-
aries and reference materials) and their use. Stu-
dents must be warned about the dangers of the in-
correct use of dictionaries.
The whole process of translation must be
taught: (1) preparing for a translation (in this
30
case it is a good idea to announce a subject one or
two weeks ahead of time and ask students to prepare
for it with glossaries of their own; (2) attacking
a new text, i.e., reading the entire text before
starting the translatior; (3) establishing glossa-
ries, keeping terminology card files, and improving
vocabulary through the use of such resources as
dictionaries of synonyms; and (4) going through the
various phases leading to a perfect end product.
I have found it useful to go over homework
assignments at the beginning of the class (assum-
ing that the class lasts at least two hours) and
then work on a new text before giving some indica-
tions for the next homework assignment. In this
way, three different subjects or texts can be
covered in a single class period. It is also a
good idea to have a backup text ready for those
days when the students simply do not relate to the
text that was chosen originally.
During oral work in class, the instructor
should avoid giving students any opportunity to do
fast sight translations of the text at hand. This
risk exists whenever students are also taking sight
translation classes at the same time. Although the
work in class is performed orally, the instructor
must demand the purest written style.
Bilingual editions of texts are always an
excellent means of instruction. Students can learn
from bad as well as good translations. A homework
assignment can consist, for example, of criticizing
a translation. Students are always surprised — and
reassured about the quality of their own work — to
find errors in meaning even in published transla-
tions.
An enjoyable exercise in advanced translation
classes cam be the translation of humor: passages
from "Asterix le Gaulois" (compare different lan-
guage versions), or anecdotes, plays, situation
comedies, cartoons, or comic strips.
Ascertaining the degree of difficulty to which
students can reasonably be exposed in translation
courses is a very delicate task. A careful balance
must be maintained both within and across courses
31
35
in order to ensure the uniform progress of all stu-
dents .
The difficulty of the course material should
never go beyond the capacity of the students, with
one exception: the first few weeks of the intro-
ductory semester.
It is important to present the beginning stu-
dent with difficult material right from the outset
(difficult in structure, not in language) . The
reason for this is that the beginner has to under-
stand immediately that translation is going to be
difficult and, more important, that it is a process
that cannot be accomplished word-by-word.
The temptation is great, of course # to expose
students to easy material in the beginning. How-
ever, particular attention must be paid to avoid
giving them the opportunity to take the easy way
out by translating word-for-word.
The instructor should put particular stress at
this stage on breaking through the language barrier
the unnecessary linguistic and- stylistic ballast
that prevent the student from getting to the essen-
tial message. This barrier can consist of compli-
cated structures , redundancies , repetitions , con-
fusing conjoiners or modifiers, and so forth. It
is the teacher's responsibility here to help the
student to "peel" the unnecessary skin and to
gradually reach the core. Once this has been
accomplished, the process is reversed, and the
student has to learn to reshape the core and to
dress it in a new skin: the target language.
This process should not always follow the
original sentence structure, but rather the origi-
nal thought pattern. Students should be encour-
aged to adopt the sentence pattern that they feel
most comfortable with in their target language.
It helps at this stage (and also later on in
the training process) to break up classes into
several working groups and to give each of them
the same assignment. The results can then be com-
pared and students can defend their translations.
Also, to create an especially warm atmos-
phere in the classroom, teachers can at times ask
advanced students to criticize beginning students.
32
36
This usually has the added advantage of giving the
advanced students some understanding of the prob-
lems that an instructor must cope with.
Interpretation
The teaching of interpretation is a very
exacting activity, as it requires constant concen-
tration on several processes that are going on in
the classroom at the same time. It is, in fact,
more strenuous than interpretation itself, where
the interpreter needs to concentrate on only two
processes simultaneously.
Sight translation. Sight translation is one
of the basic ingredients of interpretation. The
instructor should closely observe in class the
skills of the student in the following areas:
• Public speaking quality, poise, pre-
sentation, and voice
• Speed
• Clarity and conciseness of the rendition
As a first step, students could prepare seg-
ments of speeches at home but not bring any notes
with them. An almost perfect rendition should then
be expected in class. This accustoms students to a
quick pace from the outset, which then automatically
carries over to those texts that are to be trans-
lated without preparation.
For work in class, I do not recommend giving
the students time to read over the text before
starting to translate. To be prepared for the un-
expected is part and parcel of the interpreter's
trade. At most, a brief introduction^ to the con-
tents of the text can be given by the instructor,
together with the necessary vocabulary.
On the more practical side, it is important to
have students perform at a speaker's rostrum, so
that they face the class. This will help them to
33
cope with stagef right and nervouuneas. Occasional
videotaping of the students 1 performance in also
helpful .
Consecutive interpretation. The teaching of
consecutive interpretation is an art in itself— one
that has made great strides only over the last ten
years. I remember having learned this mode of in-
terpretation without any introduction at all, being
placed with advanced students from the outset and
told to "sink or swim.' 1
Two questions are often asked about consecutive
interpretation :
• Why is it still taught, considering that
approximately 99 percent of the inter-
preter's work is done in trfe simultaneous
mode?
• When is consecutive interpretation used?
The answer to the first question is that con-
secutive interpretation constitutes the basis of all
interpretation, as it develops the requisite ana-
lytical skills. Moreover, most employers first test
interpreter candidates in consecutive interpreta-!
tion, before even allowing them to perform simul-
taneous interpretation. It is still considered to
be the best test for the interpretation skills as a
whole.
As for the second question, consecutive inter-
pretation is still used whenever a high degree of
accuracy is required, e.g., in drafting conmittees,
in legal negotiations, in high-level political talks
between heads of state or government, and in after-
dinner speeches; it is also used when participants
in a meeting find it useful to have additional time
for reflection during interpretation.
There is the additional possibility that simul-
taneous interpretation equipment can break down,
especially in countries where spare parts and good
maintenance are not the rule. When this occurs,
all interpreters must be able to perform in the
consecutive mode.
34
38
I usually recommend that students start their
training in interpretation with some memory exer-
cises. For instance, one student tells a short
story that is repeated jn toto by another student.
The length and difficulty of the original stories
are gradually increased until they take the form of
short lectures on a variety of subjects.
At least until the middle of the first semester
(the introductory course usually lasts one semester) ,
absolutely no note;; are taken. The students end up
doing consecutive interpretation from English into
English without any notes. The added difficulty of
going from one language to another is only intro-
duced during the following semester.
The memory exercises stress concentrating on
the essential elements of the message. These
exercises force the students to analyze the original
message and to retain its key elements. They also
are a good indication to the instructor of the way
in which each student's mind functions.
During this phase all class material should be
"natural," and formal written speeches or news-
paper articles should be avoided. Gradually, the
instructor asks the students to take some notes on
what they have heard, but only from memory and only
after the speaker has completely finished — not dur-
ing the listening process. Only then should the
instructor show the students how these notes can
best be abbreviated; replaced by symbols, signs,
and acronyms; and arranged on the paper so as to
allow a speedy rendition.
It is of the utmost importance in these initial
phases not to make any concessions as to the speed
in which the oral messages are presented. This is
not easy 3 to do, as one tends to be merciful with
beginners, ^especially when one remembers one's own
introduction to interpretation. However, a slow
delivery only encourages the students to follow
the words, not the meaning. This introductory
period is the most difficult of all and requires a
great deal of experience in order to strike the
right balance between corrections and encourage-
ment. It is. also during this stage that students
should be asked to give several different versions
35
oi \,\u oriqi.nu.1 presentation in order to increase
their stylistic flexibility.
The phase when students first take notes on
entire speeches is again a turning point in their
development* They must bo immediately corrected
whenever they tend to take too many notos.
At: this point, I would like to" reply briefly
to two additional questions that invariably arise
during the introduction to consecutive interpreta-
t i on :
• Should notes be tdken in the source lan-
guage or in -the target language?
• Why not simply use shorthand?
(1) It does not matter in which language the
notes are taken, since notes are only symbols that,
contain a message. Interpreters should retain ideas
in their memory, not words. Words are only retained
(and made note of) if they are of extreme importance
and if they carry a message of their own. In fact,
it is not uncommon for interpreters to start their
consecutive interpretation in the same language as
the original because th6y "forget" about the lin-
guistic form of the original message, I myself
often find that I take notes in English wheiv I
interpret between German and French, my two active
languages, simply because I find many English words
particularly useful as message-carrying symbols.
Quite naturally, beginning students will take
most of their notes in the source language, not
being used to the immediate transposition of ideas
from one language to another. After having been
exposed to simultaneous interpretation, they will
then gradually take more and more notes in the
target language.
It is important to stress that there can be
no universal note-taking system. Just as there
are many different styles of thinking and learning,
there are as many different note-taking systems as
there are interpreter^. Therefore, we can only help
the students develop their individual systems.
36.
40
Never can such a system be imposed or learned by
rote.
(2) There are several reasons why the use of
shorthand should be formally discouraged for notes
in consecutive interpretation:
© Shorthand notes must be deciphered at the
moment of interpretation , thereby slowing
down the whole process. A consecutive
interpretation must never be longer than
the original speech, but should, as a
general rule, be a little shorter.
• Shorthand notes are automatically taken in *
the source language, without any effort to
translate or analyze. This then leads to
a word-for-word interpretation, which is
precisely what must be avoided.
• The words as such are unimportant for con-
secutive interpreters. They must concen-
trate on the meaning alone, since this is
the only way for them to be able to retain
all the information contained in the origi-
nal speech. The process of consecutive
interpretation is basically the same as
summing up the plot of a movie for some
friends who did not get a chance to see it.
The important difference, however, is that
the interpreter also must fill in all the
details.
• Shorthand notes would constitute an un-
necessary burden on interpreters an 7 d
would, in fact, make their work more
complicated instead of facilitating it.
/
• The only time when some knowledge of
shorthand can be useful is when/ symbols
can be used to replace certain /key words
or when direct quotes are given from
written documents. In this latter case,
however, interpreters will always have the
original text at their disposal, which
37
41
they can then sight translate without
even taking notes.
Once the students have assimilated the tech-
nique of consecutive interpretation, the following
exercise can be useful:
Ask the students to read their notes, starting
with every single word or symbol that they have on
paper. This makes them totally independent stylis-
tically from the original structure of the message,
increases their flexibility in style in their target
language, and allows the instructor to test whether
they have really understood the original message.
Whenever recordings are used as teaching
material, or when students give their own presen- .
tations, it is important that instructors make
their corrections on the basis of their own notes.
This is the only way for them to be aware of the
difficulties of the exercise. Moreover, this pro-
cedure has the advantage of keeping the students
particularly alert, as they are always eager to
catch their instructors missing one of their own
mistakes or missing something in their notes that
they themselves were able to remember.
I would like to end these brief observations
on consecutive interpretation by reminding the
reader that this is certainly the most rewarding
form of interpretation. It has been developed
into a genuine art form by many of its practi-
tioners.
Simultaneous interpretation. The teaching of
simultaneous interpretation is basically easy, once
the students have mastered the processes involved
in consecutive interpretation.
Although it sounds like a truism, it must be
stated here that teaching a simultaneous interpre-
tation class does not just consist of playing a
tape in one language and listening to the students 1
interpretation while checking with a written ver-
sion of the speech, if one is available. Under no
circumstances should the instructor be locked into
one single version of the interpretation and check
it against a written translation. There are as
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42
many good interpretations of one original as there
are interpreters, just as Haifetz, Menuhin, and
Oistrakh are able to give equally excellent, yet
substantially different, interpretations of a violin
concerto. Therefore, instructors must compare only
the original with the interpretation, without ever
considering their own interpretation.
In order* to choose appropriate teaching
materials and methods, the instructor must take
into consideration the types of meetings where the
simultaneous mode of interpretation is used:
• Discussions or negotiations, where speakers
speak "off the cuff"
• Formal speeches, mostly of a general or
political nature, which may or may not be
read from a prepared manuscript
• Technical and scientific papers, which are
almost always read
• Lectures, which are normally prepared in
writing
Students must be prepared for all these differ-
ent types of situations.
Here again, an obvious observation might seem
in order — one that is nevertheless frequently over-
looked: a simultaneous class must be spent in the
booth that will be the interpreter's working environ-'
ment for at least six hours every day. Since this is
not a normal environment for most people, students
must gradually be made to feel comfortable in these
surroundings .
Just as pilots must react in a plane's cockpit,
interpreters must develop certain automatic reflexes
when handling their equipment. Following are some
important rules that the student must learn immedi-
ately:
• Always make sure that the microphone is
turned on while interpreting, and off
during private conversations or remarks.
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43
© Always leave one ear uncovered, so that
you can hear your voice. Nonobservance
of this rule can lead to too much amplifi-
cation and eventually to hearing damage
and an unnecessarily tired voice by the
end of a long working day.
• Always control your voice volume so that
it feels comfortable and sounds pleasant
to the listener, who is the only "raison
d'etre" of any interpretation.
• Always keep a proper distance from the
microphone and maintain this distance.
A frequent change in this distance forces
listeners to adjust their volume con-
tinuously and distracts them from the
business at hand, which is not listening
to the interpretation.
• Always use the "Cough" or "Interrupt"
buttons and NOT the microphone switch
when coughing or clearing your throats
The reason for this is that the former
"bridges" the floor channel sound,
whereas the latter, when in the "Off"
position, feeds the original sound,
instead of the interpretation, into the
listeners 1 ears. It is highly unpleasant
for delegates to have the sound of the
interpretation constantly interrupted by
bits and pieces of original speech.
• J^Lways make sure that you are switched
to the outgoing channel that corresponds
to your language, as indicated in the
program or the meeting room. This is
especially important when two different
languages are coming from the same booth
in bilingual conferences and the inter-
preter, not the technician, selects the
outgoing channel.
44
o A. ways test your equipment, especially
the "Cough" buttons.
© Always test the "relais." This is the
interpreter's means of listening to
another interpreter who works from a
language unknown to the former.
Introductory Exercises
Several techniques can be used to teach
simultaneous interpretation. All these complement
each other and should be used at one point or an-
other during the course.
After they feel reasonably comfortable with
their working environment, future interpreters
need to be introduced to the process of listening
and speaking at the saiue time. Although this mode
of interpreting is called "simultaneous," there is
a slight time lag between what interpreters hear
and what they say. This time lag can be as long
as a full sentence, if the source language is very
different structurally from the target language.
This can actually be quite a traumatic experi-
ence for beginning students, and instructors need
to take great care to be very encouraging at this
point. They should talk about their own early
experiences in the booth. At the same time, they
should keep the class moving along and not let the
students get bored, as speed is the essence of all
interpretation.
As a first exercise, students should simply
listen to the instructor through their earphones.
In the next step, "shadowing," students are
asked to repeat what they 'hear—simultaneously and
in the same language. This exercise, however,
must not be carried on for too long, as it con-
sists of a word-for-word repetition, which is
precisely what we expect the accomplished inter-
preter to avoid .
As soon as possible, therefore, students must
be asked to provide summaries- — first of sentences
41
45
and then of whole paragraphs. At this point, the
instructor normally still improvises most of the
material or asks students to contribute short
speeches themselves .
Shortly afterward, students should listen to
recordings of real- life speeches and then be asked
to summarize them. Speeches that are difficult to
understand (foreign accents, high speed, unclear
logic, etc.) can be used at this stage. Also,
series of numbers should be introduced at this time,
as many students have problems memorizing long
numbers.
One of the most important aptitudes for simul-
taneous interpreters is the ability to anticipate.
Students should therefore be requested to finish
sentences that were not completed by the instructor.
Later on, they must be required to finish whole
paragraphs on their own.
After all these exercises have b£en carried
out for one full semester (assuming that each class
period is of one hour's duration); the students can
then be exposed to a bilingual situation. If the
introductory exercises have been properly carried
out, with constant feedback from the instructor and
considerable guided practice (including recordings
to check voice and pace) , students should now start
to make rapid progress .
Advanced Exercises
Neither sight translation nor consecutive
interpretation should be dropped when students pass
on to the simultaneous mode. All three activities
are indispensable and must be continued concurrently
until the end of the training period.
In order to be able to provide constant feed-
back, the instructor must alvays keep in mind the
elements of ^ good simultaneous interpretation:
the rendition should sound effortless; it should be
presented in a pleasant.- confidence- inspiring voice;
it should be rigorously accurate in meaning and as
complete as possible; and it should ir. elude all the
42
46
innuendos , inflections , nuances , and " a tirio sphere"
of the original speech.
Breathing techniques normally present no prob-
lems for the average student. However , when under
pressure (for example, when students know that they
are being listened to or when they are required to
speak very rapidly) , some students develop breath-
ing difficulties. The instructor should draw the
students* attention to this immediately in order to
prevent them from developing bad habits that cannot
be corrected later on.
Teachers should always indicate which student
they are listening to so that the students can get
used to the pressure of being "on the spot." This
pressure is a fact of our professional life, and
students must learn to cope with it at an early
stage in their training.
Incidentally, not all students will be
naturally rapid speakers. The best way for them
to acquire an adequate speaking speed is to read
difficult technical material aloud at high speed,
including technical terminology that is difficult
to pronounce, e.g. / chemical compounds.
For the more advanced students , the course
can be conducted in one or more of the following
ways. For the sake of variety, all these methods
should be used at one time or another.
• The instructor reads a speech and listens
to one interpretation at the same time.
This should pose no problem for a pro-
fessional interpreter.
• The instructor improvises a speech and
listens to the student's interpretation at
the same time* This method is extremely
difficult to keep up over a long period.
• The students interpret a speech that has
been recorded on tape or cassette.
• The students interpret an expose presented
by a fellow student or a guest speaker.
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47
© The whole group organizes a discussion on
a prepared subject.
As nothing replaces reality in the classroom,
regular mock conferences or interpretation seminars
should be organized at least twice. each semester.
Several languages should be used during these con-
ferences, and students should be required to per-
form both consecutive and simultaneous interpreta-
tions.
One last remark: as in consecutive interpre-
tation and sight translation, it is important that
students be regularly exposed to performances of
professional quality, so that they have a goal to
strive for. In addition to demonstrations by the
professor, tape recordings of good and bad inter-
pretations can be used. It has been ny experience
that colleagues always readily oblige when asked
for permission to be recorded during their work.
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48
CHAPTER 6:
TESTING
TRANSLATION
Testing is less important in the case of
translation than it is in interpretation. In my
opinion, homework assignments with extensive cor-
rections are more conducive to the learning process
than testing is. However, translators are generally
under constant pressure, due to very tight deadlines
imposed by clients. Therefore, they must also be
tested at the end of their training period under
pressure conditions. Staff translators in the
United Nations are expected to translate an aver-
age of eight pages per day. However,, freelance
translators will find it necessary to double this
daily output.
After the first year, students should be able
to translate correctly about 300 words per hour,
provided that the text does not require too much
research or use of a dictionary. Professionals
have disagreed for a long time pn whether or not to
allow the use*of dictionaries during exams or tests.
Nowadays, most potential employers do permit the
use of dictionaries when they test new translators.
This makes a lot of sense, as this is the normal
working situation for the translator. Moreover,
it is important that translators demonstrate their
skills in using dictionaries, which more often than
not makes their work even more complicated.
For final exams, students should be expected
to translate about 1000 words in three hours. A
final exam should accomplish the following:
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49
© Test the student's knowledge of general
and technical terminology
o Test the student 1 s aptitude to v/ork
rapidly, yet correctly, under time
constraints
© Test the student's skill in using
dictionaries
• Test the student's general resourceful-
ness in cases in which the dictionary is
of no help
• Test the student's general readiness to
enter the job market
• Prepare the student for future tests
with potential employers
Grading
It seems important to make some basic obser-
vations on how to grade translations. There is, of
course, no generally applicable recipe, but certain
basic rules should be adhered to.
First and foremost, grading should be based
on precise criteria, including meaning, accuracy,
style, terminology, and grammar. The grader must
be entirely familiar with the text and its termi-
nology; When grading, just as in class, the in-
structor must under no circumstances compare the
student's product with a ready-made translation,
as this would tend to bias the grade.
Some instructors read all the translations
before making any corrections in order to get an
overall view of the quality of the work of the
students. This helps to ensure a fair grading
standard. Corrections must include detailed com-
ments on the student's performance, including the
correct version of improperly translated passages.
Under no circumstances should more than two
meaning errors be allowed, regardless of the
46
50
difficulty of the text (provioed, of course, that
the text material is adapts 1 to the student's level).
However, it is not that rxiupie to define a meaning
error. Grading becomes particularly difficult in
the "gray zones." F .ovV- a wrongly translated
word, for instancr be counted as a meaning error
if it changes th* <r.y.c\ning, or should it just count
as an error in terminology?
At the Mc iterey Institute of International
Studies we are working on precise definitions and
rating scales of several categories of errors. We
hope to publish the results in the near future.
In any event, a maximum number of acceptable
errors should be set beforehand, so that grading
is uniform for all students. If several students
have the same number of mistakes, the style will
make the difference in the final grade.
One word. on grading exams in the students'
foreign languages: I am again taking it for
granted that these exercises are required for
purely academic purposes and that it is made quite
clear to students that they should never translate
professionally into their foreign languages. The
r Dossible exception might.be commercial corre-
■ ice, which is highly repetitive in character
and does not require great language skill. The
whole art of translation is (difficult enough when
working in one's own language, and attempts to
translate into foreign languages will always be of
poor quality, unless the translator has lived for
many years in the country of the target language.
At least two graders should grade final exams,
for the students' professional careers can be at
stake. In cases of a tie (one fail, one pass) , a
third grader should be consulted.
Graders need not necessarily be faculty mem-
bers. In fact, it is a good idea to use outside
professionals, especially when not all the in-
structors are professional translators. This is
also a way to ensure that students meet the stan-
dards required by the profession.
In programs that offer several foreign lan-
guages, a uniform grading policy among all lan-
guages is extremely important. It makes absolutely
47
51
no sense to be more lenient in so-called "difficult"
languages, such as German or Russian, as the re-
quirements in those languages will be strictly
identical to those for all other languages.
Also, no consideration should be given to the
fact that a student is working in a second or third
foreign language . The person who reads a transla-
tion cannot be expected to make allowances for the
translator' s language background.
INTERPRETATION
Interpretation exams are generally graded on
the basis of the same criteria as translation
exams, except that voice, speed, presentation, and
"credibility" of the performance are also evalu-
ated.
Consecutive Interpretation
In the early stages of consecutive interpre--
tation, the students 1 note-taking technique should
be evaluated in addition to the p above Criteria. No
consecutive test should last any less than three
minutes. The text should be read or spoken at a
normal speed, as a slow pace does not really help
students. Instead, it induces them to take too
many notes, which are usually badly structured and
difficult to read back..
In a final exam, no test should be longer than
ten minutes. Normally, speakers interrupt after
about four to five minutes to allow time for the
interpretation. Consecutive interpretations of
more than ten minutes e duration are extremely rare.
It is most important that all examiners take notes
themselves, on which to base their evaluations, as
some of the students' difficulties may otherwise
escape them.
Although the student interpreter's memory is
to be tested, a relatively short test can give a
48
52
good indication of the candidate's skill in this
mode of interpretation. Tests in international
organizations rarely last more than five minutes.
For final professional exams, candidates
should be required to do at least two interpreta-
tions into their native language from each of their
foreign languages, and two from their native lan-
guage into their first foreign language.
Unlike translators, interpreters may be re-
quired to work consecutively, but never simultaneously
into their first foreign language. Also, as inter-
pretation is an oral skill, one expects a conference
interpreter to be fluent in several foreign lan-
guages .
T^e tests into the foreign language should be
graded on the ba,sis of clarity, completeness, and
grammatical correctness. The accent may be foreign,
but it should be understandable to a native speaker
without special effort.
One very important quality to look for in
examining an interpreter is the candidate's aptitude
to sound convincing, especially under difficult
conditions. However, the overriding criterion must
always be the accuracy of meaning. A candidate who
gives what may sound like a very convincing or even
brilliant interpretation with more than one meaning, •
^rror must fail the exam.
Amazingly enough, some instructors have been
known to allow candidates to look over their con-' .
secutive notes before starting their interpretation.
This is a serious error. The consecutive interpre-
tation must be attacked immediately after the
speaker has finished. Consecutive interpretation
is already time consuming enough in a meeting and
tends to irritate participants toward the end of a
day. Interpreters must make a strict effort to
keep the tiine they need to an absolute minin\um.
A- consecutive interpretation, therefore, must
never be 'longer than the original. ; It should, if
at all possible, be shorter, not because the inter-
preter should give a summary , .but because he or she
is a professional in the art of oral communication,
which speakers seldom are. On very rare occasions,
especially when time is of the essence, the
49
53
chairman of a meeting might ask the interpreter to
give only a summary of the original remarks.
How complete should a consecutive interpreta-
tion be? The rule is basically simple: the inter-
pretation must contain everything that is necessary
to the understanding of the original message that
the speaker intended to conmunicate , including all
nonverbal content-
Simultaneous Interpretation
Exams in simultaneous interpretation should
consist of two parts: a rendition of an improvised
expose and an interpretation of a more technical
paper, the written text of which has been given to
the student approximately fifteen to twenty minutes
before the test to allow for preparation. This is
the normal procedure in all scientific meetings,
and the studenf must be able to listen, read, and
interpret at the same time.
Among the criteria of evaluation in exams of
simultaneous interpretation, in addition to those
already mentioned in the section on consecutive
interpretation, are technique, anticipation, speed,
and pleasantness of voice.
The simultaneous interpreter must never sound
boring when interpreting a slow speaker, or .hurried
and incoherent when interpreting a very fast speaker.
However, a final exam should not be a speed contest,
as candidates tend in any case to do less well under
exam conditions. The pressure should be that
normally encountered in a meeting, but not arti-
ficially high.
Some interpreters 1 schools do not admit candi-
dates to the simultaneous interpretation exams un-
less they have passed the consecutive interpretation
section. Although I agree that no one -shoutd- enter
the. prof ession without having passed both exams, I
feel- that students should be allowed to take both
sections and only have to repeat those parts that
they did not pass.
50
54
Incidentally, students should not get more than
two chances to take any interpreters 1 exam. If they
are not fully prepared for the exams, they should
be discouraged from taking them. If they had a bad
day during their first attempt, they deserve a
second chance. If they cannot handle the exam
pressure the second time, they are definitely not
ready to enter the profession.
An effort should be made to have professional
observers present, particularly for interpreters 1
exams. Also, it gives the exams a particular
"panache" if they are open to the public. A real
conference interpreter should be stimulated by a
large crowd and, like an actor, shoxild perform
better.
r
51
55
CHAPTER 7: CAREER OPTIONS AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES
It must be stated emphatically from the outset
of this chapter that only the very best candidates
will be able to find career employment in transla-
tion and interpretation.
It is difficult to assess how many people are
currently employed as translators and interpreters,
as not all of them belong to professional organiza-
tions. Moreover, the number of people who work as
translators less than full time is enormously high.
The International Association of Conference
Interpreters (AIIC) numbers 1600 members in about 40
countries. It is recognized as the official negoti-
ating partner with the UN and all its specialized
agencies, the European organizations, and most Euro-
pean government agencies The best known profes-
sional associations in the U.S. are the American
Association of Language Specialists (TAALS) and the
American Translators Association (ATA) .
Although there still is a great need for well-
qualified translators and interpreters, there are'
many unqualified people who call themselves pro-
fessionals, and it is difficult for potential
employers to screen candidates. Especially in the
case of translators, there is a need for more rigid
professional standards so that potential clients
can immediately judge the abilities of applicants
from their credentials. In the meantime, people
who want to enter the two fields will have to prove
themselves and build up their own clientele, just
as newly e stabli shed physicians , architects, or
attorneys are obliged to do.
Most professional translators and interpreters
start out by freelancing before they find permanent
53
i ■
employment. Translators, nowever, tenu i-u lxuu
permanent positions more often than interpreters
do. Most interpreters tend to remain freelancers.
The most difficult period for new graduates
is the time immediately following the completion
of their studies. Most employers are hesitant to
give a beginner a chance; on the other hand, be-
ginners must establish their credentials. Unless
graduates have a language combination for which
there is a high demand, they should expect a wait-
ing period of at least one year before they are
able to earn a living through interpretation or
translation. Furthermore, access to the profession
is now open almost exclusively to candidates with a
university degree and graduate training at a pro-
fessionally recognized school, of which there are
only three in the United States at present: the
Monterey Institute of International Studies (trans-
lation and interpretation) , Georgetown University
(translation and interpretation) , and State Uni-
versity of New York at Binghamton (translation
only).
In many other professions, mediocrity can
remain undetected for relatively long periods. In
our field, however, the effect can be immediate:
a corporation can lose a contract, an individual
can misunderstand directions given in an operating
manual for a machine or an appliance, a contract
can be misinterpreted and give rise to lawsuits ,
discussions in a meeting can be unnecessarily pro-
longed because of a faulty interpretation, results
of a vote can be incorrectly reported in the press,
etc. In brief, this leads to ari\ interruption of
the communication process between \people or groups
of people — a process that we are expected to help
make possible, not make more difficult. If trans-
lation and interpretation are not excellent, they
have not achieved their principal purpose.
54
SOURCES OF EMPLOYMENT
Finding employment depends on the candidate's
language combination. This aspect is so vital tliat
training programs mu^t ascertain which combinations
are most in demand at\any given time before deciding
what languages to offer.
Both translation and interpretation are fields
with limited employment^ possibilities , but these
change constantly, Lat^Ly, for example, there
seems to be an increased Vdemand for people with a
knowledge of Portuguese, \
The United Nations ha,s six official languages:
English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, and
Arabic, Candidates must possess French and English
to enter, regardless of their ot^her languages. Some
of the specialized agencies of the UN use other
languages at times. The International Labor Organi-
zation in Geneva, for example, uses German but no
Chinese.
The European Communities in Brussels, the
single largest employer in the world of both trans-
lators and conference interpreters, uses the follow-
ing languages: English, French, German, Dutch,
Italian, Danish, and Greek, It is expected that
Spanish and Portuguese will be added as soon as
these two countries are admitted to the organiza-
tion. However, the EC hires only citizens of one
of the member countries as permanent personnel.
(This rule does not apply to freelancers.)
Other international, intergovernmental organi-
zations in the United States that employ translators
and interpreters are the Organization of American
States, the Panamerican Health Organization, the
World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and
INTELSAT (International Telecommunication Satellite
Consortium) .
Among American government agencies, the Depart-
ment of State, the International Communication
Agency, the Library of Congress, and the Central
Intelligence Agency (with several subagencies, such
as the Joint Publication and Research Service) are
the largest employers of language personnel.
55
58
In private industry, language personnel are
needed on a more sporadic basis, depending on
whether or not business conditions are favorable
with certain foreign countries. For this reason,
it is difficult to survey the translation needs of
the American corporate world, which is not only
huge, but also undergoes constant changes. Most
private corporations farm out their language work/
very few have permanent in-house translators or
interpreters.
Translation agencies are probably the beginner's
best bet to get started in the profession. The
Yellow Pages should provide useful information.
However, future professionals must make sure that
they deal only with agencies that enjoy an excellent
reputation in their field. Getting involved with
agencies that do not offer work of the highest
quality might jeopardize their future career.
A word of warning is in order at this point:
beginners must always be aware of their value to an
agency and must not let employers take advantage of
them. They should be paid decently and make sure
that the agency's fee is not out of line. They
should also guard against the oci^.sional unethical
practice of some agencies of seli their ,5 te7»t"
translations directly to clients. .
The question of job r lac3ment always arises
among students in trailing programs. Training pro-
grams do not offer professional placement. A
training program can help graduates contact poten-
tial employers, but actual plt\rement in jobs is
extremely rare. This is another reason why trans-
lation and interpretation should only be taught by
professionals, who have the necessary contacts to
help students find jobs.
Location is obviously an important considera-
tion. Anyone wfio intends to make the investment
neces^ry to become a professional translate; or
interpreter and, for some reason, does not wish to
or cannot leav^ his or her immediate area of resi-
dence, should firfit explore the jp£> opportunities
i:\ that a.ea very thoroughly. Generally sn? j&rng,
working as a freelancer involves a groat deal c r
mobility. One has to be ready to move to where tit>&
work is being offered. In the case of freelance
conference interpreters , this means a great deal of
traveling. This is probably one of the few truly
international professions in the world. Freelance
conference interpreters are constantly traveling,
which can be quite disruptive to family life. This
must also be taken into consideration when making a
career decision.
A question that is often asked is, "Can one be
both a translator and an interpreter?" As stated
earlier, no translator can interpret without hiaving
had proper training. Although both professions are
language related, they are two distinct professions.
Interpreters, 'on the other hand, are normally quali-
fied to do translations , especially if translation
was part of their training, which is usually the
case. In fact, all interpreters should expect to
have to survive on translation work for a while,
until they can earn a decent living through inter-
pretation alone.
In the U.S., freelance conference interpreters
usually work a maximum of 100 days per year. This
figure is considerably lower on the West Coast.
Many graduates from training programs even have
to accept jobs in totally unrelated fields for a
while, in order to survive and pay back student
loans. In these cases it is very important that
they not lose the professional skills that have been
so painfully acquired.
Internships are normally not available,
although there are two exceptions for conference
interpreters:
The European Communities has its own training
program. The admission requirements are at least a
Master's degree in a field other than languages and
the passing of a highly selective aptitude test. If
accepted, candidates receive a salaiy during the
training period and are then integrated into the
ranks of staff interpreters upon passing another
test (usually after six months) .
The United Nations, both in Geneva and in New
York, also offers a six-month training program for
conference interpreters, but only for candidates
with language combinations for which there is an
57
60
opening. This is at present the case for candi-
dates with Spanish as a native language. All
applicants must have been previously trained in a
university translation and interpretation program.
Interpreters who become international civil
servants eventually earn quite handsome salaries,
but these positions are rare and highly coveted.
Only the very best will be accepted.
One field that offers increasing job oppor-
tunities is that of court interpreting. Testing
procedures have been federally regulated for federal
courts, as well as by a number of states, for state,
county, and municipal courts. Information on this
career is available from the state court system or
the local court interpreters' associations.
In summary, persons interested in career
opportunities in translation and interpretation
should explore the following sources:
o University training programs
0 Professional associations
• Translation agencies
• International organizations
• Government agencies
• Private corporations engaged in inter-
national trade
• Foreign chambers of commerce
Professional associations should be contacted
for information on rates and fees,
1 would like to point out in closing this chap-
ter that we seem to be in a period of transition.
On the one hand, the demand for language personnel
is increasing; on the other hand, thefce seems to be
an oversupply of candidates. However, at least one-
third of the translators and interpreters who are
now employed will drop out of the professional
ranks over the next ten years or so. ; So, although _
the job market is extremely tight right now, our
profession appears to have a good future, even for
newcomers, who will eventually replace those who
are presently engaged in the profession.
58
61
CHAPTER 8: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODE OF CONDUCT
RULES OF CONDUCT
The professional associations publish their
own codes of conduct, but I would like to stress
some of the most, important professional rules that
apply to both translators and interpreters.
Maintain Professional Confidence
With the exception of work done for govern-
ment agencies or the courts, translators and inter-
preters are generally not sworn to professional
secrecy. Nonetheless — and this is extremely
important for the image of the profession — one
does not discuss or volunteer information about
sensitive material that one has had access to dur-
ing the performance of one's professional work.
Even apparently harmless material might be l^ighly
sensitive in some quarters, without the translator
or interpreter's even being aware of it.
• Only Accept Assignments for Which You Are Qualified
This rule is just as important as the first
one and places the responsibility on language per-
sonnel, esp^ciaxly the beginner, of finding out
about the exact character of an assignment before
accepting.
59
When in doubt, professionals should consult
colleagues who have worked in the same field or
with the same client in the past. Graduates from
training programs should ask their former teachers
when unsure about accepting an assignment.
I must dissipate a myth here: technical work
is not necessarily more difficult than work of a
more general character. The beginner should not
automatically reject technical assignments as being
too difficult to handle, provided that he or she is
given ample time and documentation for preparation.
In fact, beginners will sometimes find that they
are more thoroughly prepared than some oldtimers.
The most difficult nic<c : rial tends to be that
which involves a high degree of accuracy in the
target language and many nuances to catch in the
source language. Terminology can always be looked
up in a reference book or found through consulta-
tion with the author or an expert in the field,
whereas the complete understanding of a foreign
language takes a lifetime.
Always Go through Channels
For the translator this means consulting the
client directly (with the previous approval of the
translation agency, if one is involved). Clients
are naturally eager at times to establish direct
contact with the translator, in order to bypass the
agency's fee. In the end, the translator will be
more respected for being honest, even if it involves
having to argue with a particularly insistent client.
For the interpreter, this means first contact-
ing the chief interpreter of the meeting, and then
the client if there are any problems to be solved.
Never try to establish contact with a client
over the head of the person who has recruited the
team. If this happens, it can mean the end of a
professional career, as most interpreting assign-
ments are channeled through colleagues who act as
consulting interpreters.
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63
Respect the Rules
When rules are published by professional
associations, they must be observed. In cases
where membership in these associations is not open
to beginners, they should still make the effort to
keep themselves informed about these rules, as it
will increase their chances of becoming a member
later on.
RESPONSIBILITIES
Members of our two professions carry a heavy
responsibility, which I see as consisting of seven
aspects :
(1) The responsibility toward the reader or the
listener. A good translation and a good interpreta-
tion should both read and sound like originals. The
obviqus goal in this whole process of intercultural
coimiunication is to make the reader or listener
forget that an intermediary was involved. The
highest compliment that can be paid to an inter-
preter, for instance, is when a delegate starts
insulting him or her instead of the original
speaker. Professionals must be able to efface
themselves and never appear as more than they
really are: go-betweens.
(2) The responsibility toward the client. The
client is not necessarily the same person as the
reader/listener. Although clients are normally not
directly concerned with the results of our work, it
is they who pay. And if complaints do reach the
client, it is usually too late to do something to
correct them.
(3) The responsibility toward the author or the
speaker. The main goal here is to be sure that the
intentions expressed in the original message are
clearly understood by the reader /listener . In the
case of translations, this requires careful check- ■>
ing with the author whenever this is possible.
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64
(4) The responsibility toward the language.
This aspect of their responsibility is too often
overlooked by many translators and interpreters.
They are the guardians of their language, in che
sense that many people read what they write and
listen to what they say. Too many professionals
treat their language just as a working tool, with-
out love or respect, and tend to develop a stereo-
typed vocabulary and style. Those who constantly
work with the same subject matter must make a
special effort to read good literature regularly.
Interpreters should go back to written translations
in order to avoid sounding like an officiul docu-
ment when they interpret.
(5) The responsibility toward one's colleagues .
This is almost self-evident, but it must be stressed,
since both our professions enjoy a particularly
cordial climate. Each time freelance translators
or interpreters negotiate with a client, they set a
precedent for their colleagues. Therefore, it is of
the utmost importance that they maintain a profes-
sional attitude under all circumstances, good and
bad.
For interpreters in particular, whose working
conditions are especially stressful, a cooperative
working spirit is essential. Being helpful in the
interpreters 1 booth with notes, water, or even by
just providing an unobtrusive yet efficient pres-
ence, does much to make a colleague feel comfortable
and to assure high-quality work for the whole team.
(6) The responsibility toward oneself, in
our two professions there is a strong temptation
to overwork by accepting too many assignments
at one time. Managing one's own resources and
knowing one's limitations, both in quality and in
quantity, contribute to a long and satisfying pro-
fessional career. Even a freelancer must take a
rest and vacation at regular intervals, especially
after heavy working periods, although it means not
being paid during this time. This is an inherent
risk for any freelancer or self-employed person.
(7) The responsibility toward the profession as
a whole. Translators and interpreters must never
forget that with each assignment they are
62
65
representing the entire profession. The host way
to assure a good reputation for these two profes-
sions, which enjoy no legal protection, is to set
only the highest standards of quality. Employers
often generalize from one bad experience and will
not hire any interpreters or translators.
It should be made clear to employers that no
translations should be delivered with unsolved
problems because the author or an expert could not
be contacted as a result of the reticence of the
agency to let the translator communicate directly.
Likewise, no interpreting assignment must be
accepted unless the interpreter has the guarantee
that he or she will be provided with ample prepara-
tory material. When written papers are read, the
interpreter must receive advance copies.
And, most important, interpreters must be sure
of the quality of the sound equipment they Will be
using for simultaneous interpretation. They must
not be afraid to ask to have a say in the client's
choice of the equipment. Instances where inter-
preters have tc refuse to work with bad equipment
once the meeting has started are always unpleasant,
and one should try and avoid these by making sure
that the client provides only outstanding equip-
ment, even if it is a little more expensive to
rent.
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66
ClIAI'TKK ( ): CONCLUSION
In conclusion, I would like to oiJfer some ad-
v i r o t o prospective n t ud o nt s .
Do not rush your training 1 Take as much time
as you can. Learn as much as you possibly can about
human nature in general and the culture of those
whose languages you are studying in particular.
You will be dealing with written and spoken
ideas for the rest of your life. Even with an out-
standing professional preparation, you will fail in
your endeavors if you have not developed the degree
of maturity that is obligatory for effective communi-
cation.
If you do not have a genuine love for your own
language as well as for foreign languages and cul-
tures, you should not attempt to become a translator
or interpreter.
These professions require a great deal of per-
sonal devotion and sacrifice. They are definitely
not a means to acquire wealth. At times / they can
be quite frustrating and even uninteresting,
especially if the source material is boring, which
it well may be. But you will often find that even
material that might seem boring at first sight
presents the true professional with a genuine lin-
guistic challenge. /' ~7
Many people feel Jthat translation and inter-
pretation are good fields to work in at the begin-
ning and at the end of their professional careers.
There is a certain truth to this / although most
professionals nowadays remain in these fields
throughout their entire careers.
Translation and interpretation are activities
that leave considerable free time to engage in other
65
67
intellectual occupations, which art; usual ly related
to the great variety of subjects that omi encounter
during one's professional life. Many translators
and interpreters have parallel careers in teaching,
business, writing, and editing.
I hope that with these guidel inoii I have been
able to accomplish the following:
• Translate some of the often mysterious
ideas that people have about these two
professions into more realistic concepts
© Interpret what the readers hoped to find
in this publication
• Raise the degree of respect for both
professions.
66
68
0
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bowen, D. and M. Bowen. Steps to consecutive
interpretation . Washington, D.C.: Pen and
Booth .
Cerrens, L. 1,975. Enseigner la consecutive — la
fin justif ie-t-elle les moyens? L 1 Interprete
2&3. (Geneve: AIT.)
Cerrens, L. 1976. Enseigner la consecutive.
L'Interprete 2. (Geneve: AIT.)
Dejean le Feal, K. 1973. Quelques aspects non
linguistiques de 1 1 interpretation et de la
traduction . Etudes de linguist igue appliguee
12 (exegese et traduction). Paris: Didier.
Enseignement de 1 1 interpretation — Dix ans de
collogues 1969-1979 . Geneve: AIIC.
Gaddis Rose, M. 1981. Translation spectrum ,
essays in theory and practice . Albany :
State University of New York Press.
Galer, R. 1974. A vindication of shorthand.
AIIC Bulletin 2(1).
Gerver, D. and H. W. Sinaiko. 1978. L anguage
interpretation and communication . New York
ahd London: Plenum Press.
Haensch, G. and G. Schmidt. 1957. Technik und
Praxis intemationaler Konferenzen . Munchen :
Sprachen und Dolmetscherinstitut Munchen.
Herbert, J. 1965. The int er preter's handbook .
Geneve: Georg.
Ilg, G A 1980. L 1 Interpret >;-z n consecutive.?
Par alleles 3. (Ecole ci.- Traduction et
d* Interpretation, Universite ae Geneve.)
Kirchhoff, H. 1976. Das dreigliedrige,
zweisprachige Kommunikaiiionssystem Dolmetschen.
Le Langage et 1* Homme 31 (Bruxelles) .
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Kirchhoff, H. 1979. Die Notationssprache als
Hilf smittel des Konf erenzdolmetscher im
Konsekutiwcrgang. In Sprachtheorie und
Sprachpraxis . Tubingen: Gunter Narr.
Lampe-Gegenheimer , V. 1972. Fragen zur Praxis
des Notizennehinens beim Konsekutivdolmetscheii.
Diplomarbeit , Dolmetscherinstitut der
Universitat Heidelberg.
Lederer, M. 1973. La traduction: transcpder ou
reexprimer? Etudes de linguistique appliquee
12 (exegese et traduction) . Paris: Didier.
Longley, P. 1978. An integrated programme for
training interpreters. In Language interpre -
tation and communication . New York: Plenum
Press.
Moser, B. 1976. Simultaneous translation: Lin-
guistic, psycholinguistic and human information
processing aspects. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni-
versity of Innsbruck.
Paneth, E. 1957. An investigation into conference
interpreting (with special reference to the
training of interpreters) . Thesis, University
of London. j
Paneth, E. 1962. The interpreter's task and train-
ing . The Incorporated Linguist . (London :
Linguists Clubj.)
Rozan, J. F. 1959. \ La prise de notes en inter-
pretation consecutive . Ecole d 1 Interpretes .
Geneve: Georgl
Seleskovitch, D. 1968. L 1 interprete dans les
conferences indernationales — problemes de
langage et de communication . Paris: Lettres
Modernes Minard^
Seleskovitch, D. 1975. Langage, langues et
memoire — etude de la prise de notes en
■ ? 1 — : — 1
interpretation consecutive . Paris: Lettres
Modernes Minard. V
Thiery, C. 1976. Interpretation consecutive.
L 1 Interprete . (Genpve . )
Van Hoff , H. 1962. Theprie et pratique de -
I 1 interpretation, avfec application particuliere
a l 1 anglais et au frjngais . Munchen : Hueber .
\
\
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\
\ 70
Willett, R. 1974, Die Ausbildung zum
Konferenzdolmetscher . In Ubersetzer und
Dolmetscher , V/ Kapp, ed. Heidelberg:
UTB Quelle s Meyer.
71
Wilhelm Karl Weber (Diplome de Traducteur-et-
Interprete Parlementaire, University of Geneva,
Switzerland) has taught interpretation in the
United States, Europe, and South America. He is
currently professor, and director of the graduate
division of translation and interpretation, at the
Monterey Institute of International Studies, He
has worked as a conference interpreter for the
United Nations and its agencies, the Council of
Europe, and the European Communities; organized
and directed language services of numerous inter-
national conferences and conventions throughout
the world; and served as executive secretary of
the International Association of Conference Inter-
preters. Dr. Weber interpreted at the Helsinki
(1975) and Williamsburg (1983) Summit meetings
and was chief interpreter for the Olympic games
held in Los Angeles in 1984.
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72
LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION:
THEORY AND PRACTICE
ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) is
a nationwide network of information centers, e^ch
responsible for a given educational level or ';\eld
of study. ERIC is supported Dy the National Insti-
tute of Education of the U.S. Department ot Educa-
tion. The basic objective of ERIC is to make
current developments in educational research,
instruction, and personnel preparation more readily
accessible to educators and members of related pro-
fessions .
ERIC/CLL. The ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages
and Linguistics (ERIC/CLL) , one of the specialized
clearinghouses in the ERIC system, is operated by
the Center for Applied Linguistics, ERIC/CLL is
specifically responsible for the collection and dis-
semination of information in the general area of
research and application in languages, linguistics,
and language teaching and learning,
LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE * In
addition to processing information, ERIC/CLL is also
involved in information synthesis and analysis. The
Clearinghouse commissions recognized authorities in
languages and linguistics to write analyses of the
current issues in their areas of specialty. The
resultant documents, intended for use by aducators
and researchers, are published under the title Lan-
guage in Education: Theory and Practice. The
series includes practical guides for classroom
teachers and extensive state-of-the-art papers.
This publication may be purchased directly from
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich International. It also
has been announced in the ERIC monthly abstract
journal Resources in Education ( RIE ) and is avail-
able from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service,
Computer Microfilm International Corporation, 3900
Wheeler Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. See RIE for
ordering information ^nd ED number.
ERLC
73
For further information on the ERIC system, ERIC/
CLL, and Center/Clearinghouse publications, write
to ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguis-
tics, Center for Applied Linguistics, 3520 Prospect
Street, N.W. , Washington, D.C. 20007.
Sophia Behrens , editor, Language in Education
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